Anti-inflammatory effects of orally and topically administered nanoformulations of Malva Parviflora root extract, and Prunus persica and Cupressus sempervirens exudates
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Date
2025
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Abstract
Background: Medicinal plants have been used traditionally as oral and topical herbs for treating inflammation and
alleviating pain. Particularly in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practices, many plants from the genera
Malva, Prunus, and Cupressus are used to treat various inflammation-related diseases. This study investigated in
vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of the root extracts of Malva parviflora, the exudates of Prunus persica,
Cupressus sempervirens and their chitosan nanoparticles and chitosan nanogels.
Methods: In vitro anti-inflammatory activities of M. parviflora root extracts, P. persica and C. sempervirens exudates
were investigated using the protein denaturation assay method. A 1% bovine albumin reaction mixture in
phosphate buffer and 80% (v/v) methanol was incubated with plant extracts or exudates at 37 ◦C and 70 ◦C.
Cross-linked chitosan nanoparticles loaded with plant extracts or exudates were prepared by the gelation
method. The entrapment efficiency of the plants in the chitosan nanoformulation was estimated using the
phenolic content of plant materials. The nanoparticles-based nanogel was formulated by suspending nano-
particles in a gel base. Inflammation was induced in Wistar rats (230 – 270 g) by subcutaneous injection of 0.1
mL of 1% (w/v) carrageenan in the plantar tissue of the right hind paw of the rats. The rats (n = 48) were
randomly divided into two experimental groups (A and B) of 24 rats each for oral and topical administration of
nanoformulations, respectively. Each group (n = 24) was subdivided into 6 test group (n = 4), where test groups
1, 2, and 3 were treated with 500 mg/kg/BW each of M. parviflora, C. sempervirens, and P. persica nanoparticle/
nanogel, either orally or topically, respectively. Test groups 4, 5, and 6, respectively served as positive control,
placebo nanoparticles (i.e., chitosan nanoparticles), and negative control, treated orally or topically with indo-
methacin (50 mg/kg/BW), chitosan nanoparticle/nanogel alone (500 mg/kg/BW/100 mg/kg/BW), and saline (3
mL).
Results: P. persica exudate had the highest TPC of 70.42 ± 0.53 μg of GAE/mg compared to M. parviflora root
extract and C. sempervirens exudate with the 30.93 ± 1.65 μg of GAE/mg and 9.99 ± 0.65 μg of GAE/mg,
respectively. M. parviflora root extracts had the highest in vitro protein denaturation (92.40%) compared to leaves
and stem extracts. P. persica and C. sempervirens nanoparticles had the highest entrapment efficiencies (99.46%
and 99.56%). M. parviflora root extract nanoparticles showed the greatest inhibition of oedema (90%) with oral
administration, outperforming P. persica and C. sempervirens exudates nanoparticles (both 87%). M. parviflora, P.
persica and C. sempervirens nanoparticles and placebos (chitosan) nanoparticles had better overall anti-
inflammatory activity than indomethacin after 24 h. For topical applications, C. sempervirens exudate nanogel
had the highest oedema inhibition, and placebo nanogel was more effective than the other plant nanogels and
indomethacin after 24 h.
Conclusion: Formulating medicinal plants in nanoscale dosage forms provides an effective therapy against
inflammation. This avenue could counteract the rapidly developing resistance of drugs to diseases and some sideeffects associated with the administration of multiple allopathic drugs. Further in vivo studies using steroidal and
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory controls are recommended.