NULIR
The National University of Lesotho Institutional Repository (NULIR) is a digital archive that collects, preserves, and provides open access to the scholarly and intellectual output of the University.
Recent Submissions
The classical test or item response measurement theory
(International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 2022) Ayanwale, Musa Adekunle; Chere-Masopha, Julia; Morena, Malebohang C
While the Examination Council of Lesotho (ECOL) is
burdened with a huge workload of assessment tasks, their procedures
for developing tests, analysing items, and compiling scores heavily rely
on the classical test theory (CTT) measurement framework. The CTT has
been criticised for its flaws, including being test-oriented, sample
dependent, and assuming linear relationships between latent variables
and observed scores. This article presents an overview of CTT and item
response theory (IRT) and how they were applied to standard
assessment questions in the ECOL. These theories have addressed
measurement issues associated with commonly used assessments, such
as multiple-choice, short response, and constructed response tests. Based
on three search facets (Item response theory, classical test theory, and
examination council of Lesotho), a comprehensive search was conducted
across multiple databases (such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of
Science, and PubMed). The paper was theoretically developed using the
electronic databases, keywords, and references identified in the articles.
Furthermore, the authors ensure that the keywords are used to identify
relevant documents in a wide variety of sources. A general remark was
made on the effective application of each model in practice with respect
to test development and psychometric activities. In conclusion, the
study recommends that ECOL switch from CTT to modern test theory
for test development and item analysis, which offers multiple benefits.
Using composite structural equation modeling to examine high school teachers'acceptance of E-learning after Covid-19
(Birlesik Dunya Centre, 2023) Molefi, Rethabile Rosemary; Ayanwale, Musa Adekunle
Electronic learning (e-learning) is a broader approach to learning that brings new opportunities for teaching and learning in many
fields of education compared to the face-to-face classroom environment. The purpose of this study is to explore high school
teachers’ acceptance to continue teaching through e-learning platforms after COVID-19. Based on the framework of a unified
theory of technology acceptance and use of technology, this study investigates the research questions in the context of Lesotho.
The study adopted a quantitative approach, with a total number of 300 questionnaires collected from high school teachers. The
result was analyzed using composite structural equation modeling. According to the study, instructors' acceptance of e-learning
is influenced by several factors, which in turn has a significant impact on teachers' behavioral intentions in Lesotho. As a result of
the study, individual challenges associated with using e-learning platforms were identified
Uncovering potential targets for MRSA infection treatment
(TAYLOR & FRANCIS, 2026) Ismail, Eman A; Tageldin, Abdelrahman; Gafar, Mohammed A; Nyandoro, Vincent O; Mautsoe, Relebohile; Omolo, Calvin A; Govender, Thirumala
Introduction: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a formidable global health
challenge, responsible for severe infections with unacceptably high mortality rates. Conventional
antibiotics, though essential, face growing limitations due to resistance, poor penetration into biofilms,
and inability to eliminate intracellular reservoirs. These shortcomings underscore the urgent need to
explore MRSA-specific targets, including toxin secretion, quorum sensing, biofilm formation and efflux
pumps in the design of intelligent antibiotic delivery systems. Nanocarriers provide an ideal platform to
address these gaps by enhancing drug stability, penetration, and site-specific delivery, while enabling
the co-administration of antibiotics with anti-virulence agents at otherwise inaccessible infection sites.
Areas covered: This review discusses emerging MRSA therapeutic targets, cell wall/membrane synth-
esis, quorum sensing, biofilms, virulence factors, and efflux pumps, and how nanocarrier-based systems
have been engineered to exploit them. Advances from 2015–2025 are analyzed, highlighting nano-
enabled strategies that enhance antibiotic efficacy, neutralize toxins, disrupt biofilms, and achieve high
drug accumulation at infection foci.
Expert opinion: Targeting MRSA’s virulence pathways through nanocarrier systems offers a paradigm
shift beyond traditional antibiotics. The next decade will require not only optimization and mechanistic
validation but also innovative material design, scalable manufacturing, and integration into clinical
practice to realize the promise of nanocarrier-enabled anti-MRSA therapies.
Anti-inflammatory effects of orally and topically administered nanoformulations of Malva Parviflora root extract, and Prunus persica and Cupressus sempervirens exudates
(ELSEVIER, 2025) Kheoane, Poloko Stephen; Mbara, Chimaeze Kingsley; Lenkoe, Tsepo Arnold; Magama, Sebusiswe; Mohale, Mokonyana; Tarirai, Clemence
Background: Medicinal plants have been used traditionally as oral and topical herbs for treating inflammation and
alleviating pain. Particularly in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practices, many plants from the genera
Malva, Prunus, and Cupressus are used to treat various inflammation-related diseases. This study investigated in
vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of the root extracts of Malva parviflora, the exudates of Prunus persica,
Cupressus sempervirens and their chitosan nanoparticles and chitosan nanogels.
Methods: In vitro anti-inflammatory activities of M. parviflora root extracts, P. persica and C. sempervirens exudates
were investigated using the protein denaturation assay method. A 1% bovine albumin reaction mixture in
phosphate buffer and 80% (v/v) methanol was incubated with plant extracts or exudates at 37 ◦C and 70 ◦C.
Cross-linked chitosan nanoparticles loaded with plant extracts or exudates were prepared by the gelation
method. The entrapment efficiency of the plants in the chitosan nanoformulation was estimated using the
phenolic content of plant materials. The nanoparticles-based nanogel was formulated by suspending nano-
particles in a gel base. Inflammation was induced in Wistar rats (230 – 270 g) by subcutaneous injection of 0.1
mL of 1% (w/v) carrageenan in the plantar tissue of the right hind paw of the rats. The rats (n = 48) were
randomly divided into two experimental groups (A and B) of 24 rats each for oral and topical administration of
nanoformulations, respectively. Each group (n = 24) was subdivided into 6 test group (n = 4), where test groups
1, 2, and 3 were treated with 500 mg/kg/BW each of M. parviflora, C. sempervirens, and P. persica nanoparticle/
nanogel, either orally or topically, respectively. Test groups 4, 5, and 6, respectively served as positive control,
placebo nanoparticles (i.e., chitosan nanoparticles), and negative control, treated orally or topically with indo-
methacin (50 mg/kg/BW), chitosan nanoparticle/nanogel alone (500 mg/kg/BW/100 mg/kg/BW), and saline (3
mL).
Results: P. persica exudate had the highest TPC of 70.42 ± 0.53 μg of GAE/mg compared to M. parviflora root
extract and C. sempervirens exudate with the 30.93 ± 1.65 μg of GAE/mg and 9.99 ± 0.65 μg of GAE/mg,
respectively. M. parviflora root extracts had the highest in vitro protein denaturation (92.40%) compared to leaves
and stem extracts. P. persica and C. sempervirens nanoparticles had the highest entrapment efficiencies (99.46%
and 99.56%). M. parviflora root extract nanoparticles showed the greatest inhibition of oedema (90%) with oral
administration, outperforming P. persica and C. sempervirens exudates nanoparticles (both 87%). M. parviflora, P.
persica and C. sempervirens nanoparticles and placebos (chitosan) nanoparticles had better overall anti-
inflammatory activity than indomethacin after 24 h. For topical applications, C. sempervirens exudate nanogel
had the highest oedema inhibition, and placebo nanogel was more effective than the other plant nanogels and
indomethacin after 24 h.
Conclusion: Formulating medicinal plants in nanoscale dosage forms provides an effective therapy against
inflammation. This avenue could counteract the rapidly developing resistance of drugs to diseases and some sideeffects associated with the administration of multiple allopathic drugs. Further in vivo studies using steroidal and
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory controls are recommended.
Bridging the knowledge gap
(Krupanidhi College of Pharmacy, 2025) Shelile, Mpho Z; Polile, Rasemoko R
Pharmacovigilance plays a crucial role in assessing the risk-benefit ratio of medications, promoting their
safe, rational, and effective use, and ultimately improving patient safety and care. Nurses play a fundamental
role in drug administration and monitoring the therapeutic and non-therapeutic effects of drugs. The
study aimed to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding pharmacovigilance among newly
graduated registered nurses in Lesotho, both before and after an educational intervention. This study
utilized a questionnaire-based educational intervention with a pre- and post-test design, involving newly
graduated registered nurses. A link to a 15-item pre-validated electronic questionnaire assessing knowledge,
attitudes, and practices related to pharmacovigilance was distributed to newly graduated registered nurses
before and after an educational intervention. Ethical clearance and consent from the respondents were
secured prior to the start of the study. A total of 197 newly graduated registered nurses from 6 nurse
training institutions participated in this pre- and post-KAP questionnaire study. When comparing the
KAP of pharmacovigilance before and after the educational intervention, the increase in correct response
rates was statistically significant (P < 0.001). The training evaluation received positive feedback from
the participants. Incorporating a pharmacovigilance module into pre-service nurse training is essential.
Additionally, continuing in-service and hands-on nurse training on adverse drug reaction reporting can
enhance the KAP of pharmacovigilance and improve adverse drug reaction reporting in nursing practice.
The concepts of pharmacovigilance and adverse drug reaction reporting should be further reinforced, as
there is significant potential for growth in this area